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Operating Systems An operating system (OS) is the system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. Most computer programs require an operating system to function. Since the early days of Windows 3.0 and 3.1, operating systems for home or business users have evolved into more reliable and complex operating systems capable of undertaking countless tasks. Even so, most operating systems and software programs are upgraded rather than rewritten from the ground up. This lack of commitment and foresight limits operating systems development. What we see in science fiction (SciFi) films is not commonplace in our homes. Yet we have the technology and skills to push operating systems into that age, where: ​ ​ Walls become displays in every room. Desktop computers are integrated systems that communicate with our home and business devices, such as store cupboards, fridges, entertainment, lighting, heating, and security. Voice recognition and instant language translation are commonplace. Contact lenses become the new interfaces and remove the need for mobile phones, tablets, or laptops. ​ The four most common operating systems are: ​ Microsoft Windows Apple’s macOS Linux (Although this is not a commonly used OS for PC manufacturers) Android ​ Methods to identify an OS ​ If you do not know what version of Windows being used, press the Windows key at the bottom of the keyboard, which looks like four squares and the R key at the same time to open the Run dialog box, then, Type in ‘ winver ’, then click Okay . A window should open called About Windows that tells you which operating system you are using. ​ Open the Start menu by clicking the bottom left-hand corner of your screen. If you see a search text box, select it, and then type about or about your pc . If you do not see a search text box, then just start typing about or about your pc . Select About your PC.

Types of Paint Akryl Akrylfärger är de vanligaste färgtyperna som används på modellsatser och dioramas. Akrylfärg är lätt att hantera eftersom den är vattenbaserad, vilket betyder att de kan tunnas ut och rengöras med vatten. Användningen av akryl tunnare eller airbrush flödesförbättrare ger dock de bästa resultaten. Akrylfärger är sårbara för repor eller märken, så det är viktigt att belägga dina modellpaket med lack för att skydda dem. Beroende på temperaturen torkar akrylfärgen på cirka 20 minuter och härdar inom 24 timmar. För airbrushing torkar alkoholbaserade thinner snabbare än vatten. Fördelar Vattenbaserade akryler tenderar att torka snabbt, har en försumbar lukt och kan enkelt blandas med vatten eller tunnare. Vatten kan också användas för att rengöra borstar samt ta bort en topplack för att skapa fliseffekter. På grund av den snabbtorkande tiden tillåter detta att många fler färger kan appliceras under en modelleringssession, vilket ökar byggandet av mer komplexa områden, såsom cockpits och figurer. Många tillverkare producerar nu ett brett utbud av färgserier av färger som är utformade för att replikera verkliga färger som används av många länder genom historien. Detta gör det lättare att producera en rad modeller med exakta färgscheman och ytbehandlingar. Numera tillverkar många tillverkare akrylfärger som är lämpliga för airbrushes, såsom Vallejo Model Air, MIG AMMO och AK Interactive. Airbrushing akrylfärg tilltalar många modeller eftersom dessa färger är relativt säkra att använda inomhus och har lite lukt. Ansvarsfriskrivning: Vid airbrushing av färg rekommenderas det att använda en spraybås och ansiktsmask / andningsskydd för att skydda dig från det genererade spraymolnet. Nackdelar Med sina snabbare torkningstider behöver akryl lite extra försiktighet för att undvika borstmärken på modellen. Detta kan åstadkommas genom att applicera flera tunna skikt eller använda utjämningsförtunnande medel, torkhämmare eller flödesförbättrare som också kan användas när du borstar akryl, akrylfärg är benägen att torka ut i luftborsten, dess spets eller i luften under resan. till modellen. Omgivningstemperatur kan också påverka torkningsaspekter. Den slutliga ytan kallas av många för en topplack eller lack. Det hjälper till att skydda lacken från skador, eftersom vissa modellsatser är utformade för wargaming på bordsskivor som utsätts för omfattande hantering och upprepad användning. Vissa märken akrylfärg kan vara alkoholbaserade som ger en söt doft. Detta kan orsaka problem när du borstar målning eftersom andra eller tredje lager kan störa de tidigare färglagren. Lack Lakfärger används minst på grund av deras svårighet och risk för användning. Lackfärger är de hårdaste av de tre huvudtyperna och torkar snabbast. När torra lackfärger är extremt svåra att ta bort utan att skada plasten också. Av de tre är de också de mest giftiga, så användarna bör vara i ett väl ventilerat område med en explosionssäker spraybås som har ett speciellt fläktsystem och bära andningsskydd, ögonskydd och handskar. Lackfärg kräver en annan typ av färg tunnare som passar namnet lack tunnare. Exempel på lackfärg är MrColor och MRP (MrPaint). Emalj Emaljfärger torkar vanligtvis till en hård, blank yta. Det kan ta 2-3 timmar att torka, men har en härdningstid på 24-48 timmar. På grund av detta torkar emaljfärg hårdare, därför är den mer motståndskraftig mot repor. Emaljfärger är giftigare än akrylfärger men är inte lika dåliga som lackfärg. Den används för handmålning där den långsammare torkningen ger ytterligare tid för färgen att jämna ut och dölja penseldrag. Emaljfärger rekommenderas också för tvätt av paneler. Exempel på emaljfärger är Tamiya Enamel, AK Interactive och MIG AMMO.

Wireless Network System Wireless LANs WLAN technologies tend to follow one of the three Wi-Fi communication standards and the advantages of wireless networking depend on the standard employed: ​ 802.11b - was the first standard to be used in WLANs. ​ 802.11a - the standard is faster but was more expensive than the 802.11b, because of this it was used in business networks, but it is now widely used in the public sector. ​ The 802.11g, endeavored to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. ​ The latest in Wi-Fi technology is the 802.11ac. 802.11ac connectivity, makes previous standards look like snails and makes the aggravation from slow connection speeds and load times a thing of the past. ​ The latest in Wi-Fi technology is the 802.11ad. 802.11ad connectivity, makes previous standards look like snails and makes the aggravation from slow connection speeds and load times a thing of the past. ​ The 802.11ad pushes routers, computers, servers, and printers in your home network into the next level. Because of this, an entire family can use an incredible amount of data without impacting anyone else on the network. ​ List of standards: ​ 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy) 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.11-2007 802.11n 802.11-2012 802.11ac 802.11ad ​ Installation Wi-Fi networks can be configured in two different ways: The Ad hoc approach allows wireless devices to communicate in a peer-to-peer manner. The infrastructure method allows wireless devices to communicate with a central connection that in turn communicates with wired connections on that LAN. ​ Most LANs require an infrastructure method to access the Internet, a printer, or other wired items, whereas Ad hoc mode only supports basic file sharing between the wireless devices. Both Wi-Fi approaches require a wireless network adapter/s, sometimes called WLAN cards. Infrastructure mode WLANs also need a central device called the access point. ​ The access point must be installed in a location where wireless signals can reach it with minimal interference. Although Wi-Fi signals typically reach 100 feet (30 m) or more depending on your router, obstructions like walls can greatly reduce their range, especially in an old Victorian house like mine where the walls are three feet thick. ​ Cost Most routers are wireless compatible so cost somewhat less than wired Ethernet products and most internet providers provide the router, filter, and a CAT 45 cable as part of the service. These days costs are minimal for a wireless network. ​ Reliability Wireless LANs suffer more reliability problems than wired LANs, nevertheless, perhaps not enough to be a significant concern. Older 802.11b and 802.11g wireless signals were subject to interference from home appliances including: ​ Microwave ovens Cordless telephones Electronic garage doors Fridges ​ But with the newer standards, this has all but disappeared. I will discuss setting up a wireless network later, along with port-forwarding so that you can login to your server, computer, or printer when away from home. Port-forwarding can be a challenge, so I will go through it in detail. ​ Performance These days the performance of Wireless LANs is great compared with the older 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g WLANs. But Wireless systems are not as fast as their wired counterparts. Additionally, Wi-Fi performance is distance sensitive, meaning that maximum performance will degrade on a computer farther away from the access point and the more wireless devices used the WLAN performance degrades more. ​ Nowadays, the Wireless option is more than adequate for a home Internet connection for sharing files, printing, gaming, and media downloads and connecting additional devices like the iPhone and iPad. ​ Security Wireless LANs are less secure than wired LANs because wireless communication signals travel through the air and can be intercepted. ​ Many people have been through the courts for hacking into on to un-secure Wireless networks while out in their cars or sitting on a park bench. Known as war-driving it involves traveling through a residential area with their Wi-Fi equipment scanning the airwaves for unprotected WLANs. So, beware! ​ I cannot emphasize enough to set your Wireless network up securely, using the firewall and strong passwords. Using the Privacy (WEP) encryption standard WLANs improves security greatly, but not as wired networks. However, no computer network is completely secure, and you should ensure: Home is Internet firewall is properly configured. ​ Household is acquainted with the danger of Internet ‘spoof emails’ and how to recognise them. Household is aware of ‘spyware’ and how to avoid it. Use anti-virus software and keep it updated. ​ To help protect your computer from Intrusion, Trojans, and Viruses you will need antivirus and firewall software installed on your computer. I use ESET and Malwarebytes, there are free alternatives, but I find the free options significantly less secure and reliable. Nearly all the infected computers I worked on in the industry had free versions and the removal of the risk and preventing data loss always cost more than purchasing the paid anti-virus and malware software combined. ​ Although Broadband routers have firewalls installed, these are not reliable so do not rely on this alone to protect your computers. ​ KEEP the antivirus and malware software updated on a regular basis, as new threats come onto the web daily.

Resistors Motstånd är passiva tvåterminala elektriska komponenter som påverkar det elektriska motståndet i ett kretselement. I elektroniska kretsar används motstånd för att minska strömflödet, justera signalnivåer, dela spänningar, förspänna aktiva element och avsluta överföringsledningar, men de har också andra applikationer. Det finns många typer av motstånd som används i elektroniska kretsar. Motstånd styr antingen strömflödet eller alstrar ett spänningsfall. För att göra detta måste ett motstånd ha någon form av 'resistivt' eller 'motstånd' värde. Därför finns motstånd tillgängliga i ett stort antal motståndsvärden från fraktioner av en ohm (Ω) till miljoner ohm. När motståndets kropp är tillräckligt stor för att läsa utskriften, såsom effektmotstånd, trycks motståndsvärde, tolerans och wattvärde i allmänhet på motståndets kropp i form av siffror eller bokstäver. Men de flesta motstånd är små, dessa specifikationer visas som färgade band som anger deras resistiva och toleransvärden tillsammans med den fysiska storleken på motståndet som indikerar dess wattvärde. Beräkning av motståndsvärden Det vänstra, viktigaste färgade bandet är det band som ligger närmast en anslutningskabel med de färgkodade banden som läses från vänster till höger enligt följande: Siffra, siffra, multiplikator = färg, färg x 10 färger i Ohms (Ω) Till exempel har ett motstånd följande färgade markeringar. Det fjärde och femte bandet används för att bestämma motståndets procentuella tolerans. Motståndstolerans är ett mått på motståndets variation från det angivna resistiva värdet och är ett resultat av tillverkningsprocessen och överförs i procent av dess "nominella" eller föredragna värde. Typiska motståndstoleranser för filmmotstånd sträcker sig från 1-10% medan kolmotstånd har toleranser upp till 20%. Motstånd med lägre toleranser än 2% kallas precisionsresistorer med eller lägre toleransmotstånd, vilket är dyrare. Majoriteten av fem bandmotstånd är precisionsmotstånd med toleranser på antingen 1-2% medan de flesta av de fyra bandmotstånden har toleranser på 5%, 10% eller 20%. Färgkoden som används för att beteckna ett motstånds toleransvärde ges som en av följande: Om motståndet inte har något fjärde toleransband skulle standardtoleransen vara 20%. Motstånd med kodmarkeringar

Central Processing Unit A central processing unit (CPU), also known as a processor, is located on the motherboard. The CPU carries out the instructions of a computer program known as software by performing the basic arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system. Its function is to execute programs machine language code and store it in main memory RAM in the computer, including performing calculations, and running programs. It does this by repeating the ‘fetch-and-execute’ cycle over and over, it repeatedly fetches a machine language instruction from RAM and then executes it. The CPU is often called the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system but works as part of a broader, more diverse ecosystem that includes RAM and other elements of the computer. Motherboards support specific types or ranges of CPUs, so check the motherboard manufacturer’s specifications before attempting to replace or upgrade a CPU in a computer. Most CPUs come with heatsinks and a fan that fits on top of the CPU to help dissipate heat, CPUs generate a lot of heat so water cooling a CPU is the best option for high-end gaming or graphics machines. The two normal components of a CPU are: ​​ ​ Control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them - calling on the ALU when required. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logical operations.

Paint Brushes There is one certainty, paintbrushes vary enormously in quality. Cheap brushes will generally be of poorer quality and most paint finishes will reflect that fact. The main influence in brush quality is the type of hair used. Quality brush hairs will naturally form a point and will have a good spring to them, so they can be bent and quickly return to their usual shape. Decent brushes hold more paint and will deliver the paint consistently, instead of a flash as soon as the brush touches the subject. Traditionally, paintbrushes were made with various types of natural hairs or bristles. There is soft or stiff depending on the intended use. These days, many paintbrushes are made from synthetic hairs, and being with synthetic brushes were of debatable quality. The only advantage they had over natural hairs was the cheapness of production. But now, synthetic bristles have improved immensely. Some artists and modellers still insist that the best brushes are Kolinsky Sable hair, but many modellers only use synthetic hair brushes. For myself, I have found the manufacturer is just as vital factor in brush quality. I have had exceptionally good and noticeably mediocre brushes made sable and synthetic hairs. Sable Martin Listed below are the most common hair used by modelers: Sable - is considered to make the ultimate soft brush. It is made from the hairs from the tail of a Sable Marten. Sable hair has a natural taper, so when they are put into a brush, they form a point. Sable brushes are generally the most expensive, they are famed for their softness, flexibility, fine point, and ability to hold paint. Kolinsky Sable from Siberia is generally considered the best of sable. Squirrel – are less expensive than Sable, squirrel hairs are soft, but do not have limited spring, so work better in large brushes. Synthetic - Nylon was often used in the early synthetic brushes. Making the bristles course with thick ends, so did not perform well. The advantage was being cheap and durable. Modern synthetic brushes have improved immensely, being made from a variety of materials. The best specimens closely mimic natural hair very. Synthetic bristles occasionally stay in good condition longer than natural hairs, but increased quality often means increased cost. Sable Marten Squirrel Paint Brush Shapes care vast and come in may sizes, and modelllers can easily use most, although in reality most modeller only use a small fraction. The most extensively used modellers brush is the round because it can be used to make fine lines, block in colour and blending. Flats and Washes are also popular to do edges or fat for wider strokes. Liner brushes hold a lot of colour and can make long continuous lines without the need to reload the brush. While Fans can be used for grass, hair, feathers, fur or squiggles. Paintbrush shapes range from: ​ Angular or Dagger – banding fine lines, leaves or plant stems. Natural Round, Fan and Flat – depending on size and shape, washes, glazes and weathering streaks. Glaze, Wash or Funky Pouncer – adding texture, stains, weathering. Stencil – strong short bristles for dabbing. Bristle Round, Flat and Fan - depending on size and shape, good for fine to thicker lines, blending, blocking in colour, grass, hair, feathers or fur. Wisp or Comb – paint multiple lines at one time, good for foliage, hair or feathers. Wisp Fan – paint multiple lines at one time, good for splattering. Wisp Flat - paint multiple lines at one time, good for grass, hair, feathers or squiggles. Filbert or Wisp Filbert - paint multiple lines at one time, good for grass, hair, fur, feathers or flower petals. Triangular – triple load with colour for blending. Liner – extra fine lines, small strokes and fine detail. Detail -angles shapes, sharp edges and floating colours in tight areas. Script – extra long strokes, lines and scrolling.

Canmore Alberta’s Rockies Canmore is between Calgary and Banff. It took about 1½ hours to get the 50 miles (81 kilometres) from Calgary International Airport. ​ Canmore is only minutes away from Banff National Park, Kananaskis Country and Bow Valley Provincial Parks where 5 famous ski resorts and 6 breath-taking golf courses are located. ​ Canmore is situated in the Bow Valley within Alberta’s Rockies, it is an old mining town; because of this, it went relatively unnoticed for a great number of years, unlike Banff. ​ However, Canmore is more than a ski resort base. It offers over 70 kilometres of trails, a Nordic centre, hiking, climbing, mountain biking, kayaking, canoeing, rafting, and scrambling provide an endless assortment of outdoor activities. ​ To enhance your experience of the Rockies, visit the Rafter 6 ranch resort (currently up for sale), this ranch has a colossal variety of activities and the location is second to none. While there I was lucky enough to view the white buffalo, a herd of elk and some precious wolves. Being an ardent photographer, I was lucky enough to get some great photographs of the white buffalo, elk, wolves, and landscape in and around Canmore and Banff National Park. ​ Canmore's town’s elevation is 4296 feet (1309 metres) with the surrounding summits extending to heights of 9,633 feet (2936 metres). The Bow River flows through the town linking it to a network of wildlife corridors and trails. An abundance of local wildlife, wildflowers and mountains provide boundless opportunities to experience nature and take photographs of the wildlife, flora and The Three Sisters. The Three Sisters ​ The Three Sisters are a trio of peaks near Canmore. They are known individually as Big Sister (Faith), Middle Sister (Charity), and Little Sister (Hope). ​ Albert Rogers, a nephew of Major Rogers who discovered ‘Rogers Pass’ in the Selkirk Mountains named the three peaks in 1883. ​ Albert Rogers recollected, ‘there had been a heavy snowstorm in the night, and when we got up in the morning and looked out of the tent, I noticed the three peaks had a heavy veil of snow on the north side, and I said to the boys, ‘Look at the Three Nuns.’ They were called the Three Nuns for quite a while but later were called the ‘Three Sisters’ and first appeared on George Dawson’s map in 1886. ​ Heights: Big Sister (Faith) – 9,632 feet, (2,936 metres) Middle Sister (Charity) - 9,084 feet, (2,769 metres) Little Sister (Hope) - 8,840 feet, (2,694 metres) Out of gallery History In 1884 Donald Smith the director of the Canadian Pacific Railway officially named Canmore. In 1886, Queen Victoria granted a coal mining charter to the town, and the first mine was opened a year later. In the 1890s a North-West Mounted Police barrack had been built on Main Street, but it was vacated in 1927 and was restored in 1989. It still remains in the main street. ​ By the 1970s the market for coal had diminished and in 1979 the Canmore mines ceased operations. Unfortunately because of safety and reclamation policies initiated by the province of Alberta, most of the mining structures were demolished and today, only the lamphouse and a few mine entrances remain. Canmore’s commercial future seemed gloomy until the announcement in the 1980s that Calgary would be hosting the 1988 Winter Olympics. This opened the door for Canmore, as it would host the Nordic events, resulting in increased tourism.

Electronic Circuits for Model Kits Out of gallery Att bygga elektroniska kretsar för modeller är inte en komplicerad process, men grundläggande kunskaper rekommenderas. Detta kit är Revell Imperial Start Destroyer, inte Technik-serien eftersom jag tycker att det finns begränsningar i tillverkarnas elektroniska system. Komponenter som används är: Motstånd Kondensator Diod Transistor Timer - 555

Programming Editing Software What is programming editing software? They are a computer program that edits plain text and called text editors. Text editing software is incorporated with operating systems and software development packages, they are used to write or modify configuration files, documentation files, and programming language source code. ​ Here are some of the programming editing programs I use: Vim is a highly configurable text editor built to create and change any kind of text very efficiently. It is included as ‘vi’ with most UNIX systems and Apple OS X. Vim is rock stable and is continuously being developed into a better text editor. ​ Features: Persistent, multi-level undo tree. Extensive plugin systems. Support for a myriad of programming languages and file formats. Powerful search and replace abilities. Integrates well with many tools. Notepad++ is a popular free-to-use code editor written in C++. It uses pure win32 API which offers a larger execution speed and small program size. It only runs in the MS Window's environment but uses a GPL License. ​ Features: This text editor supports syntax highlighting for languages like PHP, HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. Auto-completion: Word completion, Function completion. Macro recording and playback. User-defined Syntax highlighting and folding. Customizable GUI. Multi-view and Multi-Language support. Visual Studio Code is an open-source (Free) code editing software developed by Microsoft. This free text editor offers built-in support for TypeScript, JavaScript, and Node.js. It is autocompleted with IntelliSense features provides smart completions based on variable types, essential modules, and function definitions. ​ Platforms: Mac, Windows, Linux. ​ Features: Easy working with Git and other SCM (Software Configuration Management) providers. Code refactoring & debugging. Easily extensible and customizable. Brackets is a free lightweight tool developed by Adobe. It allows you to toggle between your source code and the browser view. ​ Platform: Mac, Windows, Linux ​ Features: Quick Edit UI feature puts context-specific code and tools inline. Offers live preview, pre-processor support, and inline editors. Pleasant-looking User Interface (UI). A specifically developed tool for macOS Comes with the inbuilt extension manager. Dreamweaver is an Adobe software editor that allows users to create, code, and manage dynamic websites easily. Users can build responsive websites that adapt to fit any screen size, whether it is on a computer or handheld device. You can preview your websites and edit in real-time to ensure your pages look and work the way you want before you publish. It provides access code hints so users can quickly learn and edit HTML, CSS, and other web standards, and it uses visual aids to reduce errors and speed up site development. I have been using Dreamweaver for countless years and have found it to be a reliable robust editor. But it is expensive and out of reach for many non-professional users.

Greece Out of gallery

Potting and Growing Orchids Most vandaceous orchids, a few Phaleanopsis, and Dendrobiums can be grown easily in wooden slatted baskets, without any compost at all, this method requires frequent watering. ​ Cattleya and Cymbidiums do well in a mix of bark chippings, perlite, and charcoal to keep the mixture sweet. ​ Oncidiums , Dendrobiums , Odontoglossums , and Catlias will also be happy in this mixture. Consider the thickness of the chosen orchid roots when deciding to use large, medium, or small bark chippings. ​ Paphiopedilums and Phragmipediums prefer a mixture of Rockwool, bark foam, sphagnum moss, and perlite. ​ Vanda’s and many other species can be placed in a wooden open basket and allow their roots to grow openly in the air – this method requires constant attention to watering and spraying for humidity. ​ Rainwater is the best option; otherwise, endeavour to use water produced by reverse osmosis systems unless you are extremely sure about the quality of your local water supply. Spring and summer ​ I spray my Vanda’s on a daily basis and in the hot summer months (yes I know it’s the UK, but I live in Cornwall), remember these roots are airborne. ​ My potted orchids are plunged in a bucket of water for at least 30 minutes once a week – if the weather is cooler every two weeks will be fine. ​ The pseudobulbs post-winter will be wrinkled and as spring approaches and you start watering the orchids on a more regular basis they will fill out. Start feeding in the new-year and continue every couple of months. De flesta vandösa orkidéer, några Phaleanopsis och Dendrobiums kan odlas enkelt i träkorgar utan kompost alls, denna metod kräver frekvent vattning. Cattleya och Cymbidiums klarar sig bra i en blandning av barkflis, perlit och kol för att hålla blandningen söt. Oncidiums, Dendrobiums, Odontoglossums och Catasetums kommer också att vara glada i denna blandning. Tänk på tjockleken på de valda orkidérötterna när du bestämmer dig för att använda stora, medelstora eller små barkflis. Paphiopedilums och Phragmipediums föredrar en blandning av Rockwool, barkskum, sphagnumossa och perlit. Vanda och många andra arter kan placeras i en öppen träkorg och låta sina rötter växa öppet i luft - denna metod kräver ständig uppmärksamhet på vattning och sprutning för fukt. Regnvatten är det bästa alternativet; i annat fall försök att använda vatten som produceras av omvänd osmossystem om du inte är mycket säker på kvaliteten på din lokala vattenförsörjning. Vår och sommar Jag sprutar mina Vanda dagligen och under de varma sommarmånaderna (ja jag vet att det är Storbritannien, men jag bor i Cornwall), kom ihåg att dessa rötter är luftburna. Mina krukväxter kastas i en hink med vatten i minst 30 minuter en gång i veckan - om vädret är svalare varannan vecka kommer det att vara bra. Pseudobullarna efter vintern blir skrynkliga och när våren närmar sig och du börjar vattna orkidéerna mer regelbundet kommer de att fyllas. Börja mata på nyåret och fortsätt varannan månad. Höst till vinter Vanda vattnas när rötterna är vita; när du vattnar byter de färg till ljusgrön - vatten varannan dag, men spray varje dag. Krukväxter vattnar sparsamt, jag vattnar mina varannan månad på vintern eftersom pseudobulbs håller orkidén okej. ALDRIG över vatten - se till att rötterna är torra, inte barken eller jorden.

Linux Command Line The Linux command line is a text interface to your computer, it is a computer program that interprets commands. Allowing users to execute commands by manually typing at the terminal or has the ability to automatically execute commands which were programmed in ‘Shell Scripts’. The shell is a program that takes commands from the keyboard and presents them to the operating system to perform. On most Linux systems a program called ‘bash’ (Bourne Again Shell) acts as the shell program. Besides bash, other shell programs include ksh, tcsh, and zsh. ​ A terminal is a program called a ‘ terminal emulator ’. This program opens a window and lets you interact with the shell. There are several different terminal emulators, most Linux distributions supply a few, popular terminals are: ​ Gnome-terminal - is a free open-source terminal emulator for the GNOME desktop environment, terminal emulators allow users to access a UNIX shell while remaining on their graphical desktop. Like most of the terminal emulators in this group, it supports coloured text, a variety of themes, transparency, mouse interaction, multiple tabs, and the automatic rewrapping of text upon resizing. As well as supporting multiple profiles. ​ Konsole or Console - is a free open-source terminal emulator that is part of KDE and ships with the KDE desktop environment. Konsole is the default terminal emulator shipped with KDE. Being a KDE component, it provides the embedded terminal for many other KDE applications, including Konqueror, KDevelop, and Kate. Its features are like the default GNOME terminal but have enhanced bookmarking functions for directories and SSH. It also offers split terminals. ​ xterm - In computing, xterm is the standard terminal emulator for the X Window System. Users may have many different requests of xterm running at once on the same display, each of which provides independent input/output for the process running in it (normally the process is a Unix shell). ​ rxvt - is an acronym for ouR eXtended Virtual Terminal, it is a terminal emulator for the X Window System, and in the form of a Cygwin port, for Windows. ​ Guake – is one of a few terminal emulators with a ‘ drop-down ’ style interface, emerging from the top of your screen with the press of a hotkey. ​ Tilde – is another Quake-style drop-down terminal emulator, designed for Gtk. Its name is taken from the tilde key, the default key for invoking the Quake terminal. Tilda's default interface is extremely minimal, with no window title or border, but this can be changed in the preferences. And has several options for everything from setting key bindings, setting default size and colour, and scrolling preferences. ​ Terminator - is a terminal emulator designed to make positioning terminals within a single-window easier, it features including several key-bindings, saving of layouts, and the ability to type to multiple terminals at the same time. Mirroring much of the behaviour of the GNOME terminal. ​ Yakuake - another drop-drown terminal emulator, is part of the KDE family. If you like Konsole but prefer the Quake-style approach, this is terminal may be an option. ​ To start a terminal search through the list of programs to see if anything looks like a terminal emulator: ​ With KDE - the terminal program is called ‘ konsole ’ With Gnome - it is called ‘gnome-terminal ​ Opening a Linux terminal ​ To open the terminal, press : ​ Ubuntu and Mint - Ctrl+Alt+T gnome-terminal - press Alt+F2 , type in gnome-terminal , and press enter Raspberry Pi - type in lxterminal Linux Commands Basic Commands: pwd (password) - When opening a terminal, you are in the home directory of your user. To know which directory you are in, you can use the ‘ pwd ’.command. It provides the absolute path, which means, the path that starts from the root. The root is the base of the Linux file system. It is denoted by a forward slash ( / ). The user directory is usually something like ‘ /home/username ’. ​ ls (list) - use the ‘ls’ command to know what files are in the directory you are in, but to view hidden files use the command ‘ ls -a ’. ​ cd - Use the ‘cd’ command to go to a directory. So, if you are in the home folder, and you want to go to the Documents folder, then you can type in ‘ cd Documents ’, keep in mind, this command is case sensitive, so if you type documents, it will not work, you must type in the exact name of the folder. If you just type ‘ cd ’ and press enter, it takes you to the home directory. To go back from a folder to the folder before that, you can type ‘ cd .. ’. The two dots represent back. ​ mkdir & rmdir - use the mkdir command when you need to create a folder or a directory. For example, if you want to make a directory called ‘ Music ’, then you can type ‘mkdir Music’. Remember, as told before, if you want to create a directory named ‘ Music Albums ’, then you can type ‘ mkdir Music\ Albums ’. Use rmdir to delete a directory. But rmdir can only be used to delete an empty directory. To delete a directory containing files, use rm . ​ touch - the touch command is used to create a file. It can be anything, from an empty txt file to an empty zip file. Like, ‘ touch new.txt ’. ​ rm (remove) - use the rm command to delete files and directories, typing ‘ rm -r’ will delete just the directory. It deletes both the folder and the files it contains when using only the rm command. ​ man & --help - the man command allows users to find out more about a certain command and how to use the man command. It displays the manual pages of the command. For example, ‘ man cd ’ shows the manual pages of the cd command . Typing in the command name and the argument helps it show which ways the command can be used, such as ‘ cd –help ’. ​ cp (copy) - the cp command to copies files through the command line. It has two arguments: ​ Location of the file to be copied Where to copy ​ mv (move) - the mv command moves files via the command line. It can also be used to mv command and rename a file. Such as, if we want to rename the file ‘ tinder ’ to ‘ fire ’, we can use ‘ mv tinder fire ’. It takes the two arguments, just like the cp command. ​ locate - The locate command locates a file in a Linux system, like the search command in Windows. This command is useful when you do not know where a file is saved or the actual name of the file. Using the -i argument with the command helps to ignore the case (it is not case sensitive). So, if you want a file that has the word ‘wolf ’, it gives the list of all the files in your Linux system containing the word when you type in ‘ locate -i wolf ’. If you remember two words, you can separate them using an asterisk (*). Like, to locate a file containing the words ‘wolf" and ‘ this ’, you can use the command ‘ locate -i *wolf*this ’. ​ Intermediate Commands ​ echo - the echo command allows us to move some data, typically text into a file. For example, if you want to create a new text file or add to an already made text file, you just need to type in, ‘echo beware, the wolf is at the door >> new.txt ’ . You do not need to separate the spaces by using the backward slash here because we put in two triangular brackets when we finish what we need to write. ​ sudo - is a widely used command in the Linux command line, sudo means for ‘SuperUser Do ’ . So, if you want any command to be done with administrative or root privileges, you can use the sudo command. For example, if you want to edit a file like viz. alsa-base.conf, which needs root permissions, you can use the command ‘ sudo nano alsa-base.conf ’ . You can enter the root command line using the command ‘ sudo bash ’ , then type in your user password. You can also use the command ‘ su ’ to do this, but you need to set a root password before that. For that, you can use the command ‘sudo passwd ’ ( not misspelled, it is abbreviated to passwd ). Then type in the new root password. ​ cat - the cat command is used to display the contents of a file. It is usually used to easily view programs. ​ nano, vi, jed - nano, and vi are installed text editors in the Linux command line. The nano command text editor denotes keywords with colour and can recognise most languages, vi is simpler than nano. You can also create a new file or modify a file using this editor. Like, to make a new file named ‘ cub.txt ’, you can create it by using the command ‘ nano cub.txt ’. You can save your files after editing by using the sequence Ctrl+X, then Y (or N for no). ​ tar - use tar to work with tarballs (files compressed in a tarball archive) in the Linux command line. It can compress or un-compress different types of tar archives like .tar , .tar.gz , or .tar.bz2 . It works based on the arguments given to it, like, ‘ tar -cvf ’ for creating a .tar archive, -xvf to untar a tar archive, -tvf to list the contents of the archive. ​ df - use the df command to see the available disk space in each of the partitions in your system. Type ‘ df ’ in the command line to see each mounted partition and their used/available space in % and in KBs. If you want it shown in megabytes, you can use the command ‘ df -m ’ . ​ du (disk usage) - the du lets you know the disk usage of a file in your system. If you wish to know the disk usage for a particular folder or file in Linux, you can type in the command ‘ df ’ and the name of the folder or file. So, if you want to know the disk space used by the documents folder in Linux, you can use the command ‘ du Documents ’ . You can also use the command ‘ ls -lah ’ to view the file sizes of all the files in a folder. ​ zip, unzip - is used to compress files into a zip archive, and unzip to extract files from a zip archive. ​ uname - Use uname to show the information about the system your Linux distro is running. Using the command ‘ uname -a ’ prints most of the information about the system. This prints the kernel release date, version, or processor type. ​ apt-get - using apt allows users to work with packages in the Linux command line. Users use apt-get to install packages. This requires root privileges, so the sudo command will also be required. Such as, if you want to install the text editor vim , type in the command ‘ sudo apt-get install vim ’ . Similarly, any package can be installed this way. However, it is prudent to update your repository each time you want to install new packages. This can be done by typing ‘ sudo apt-get update ’ . Upgrading the system you type ‘ sudo apt-get upgrade ’, and for distro upgrades, type ‘ sudo apt-get ‘ dist-upgrade ’ . The command ‘ apt-cache search ’ is used to search for a package. If you want to search for one, you can type in ‘ apt-cache search vim ’, but this does not require root command. ​ chmod - use chmod to make a file executable and to change the permissions granted to it in Linux. If you have a python code-named dog.py on your computer. You will need to run ‘ python dog.py ’ every time you need to run it. Instead of that, when you make it executable, you only just need to run ‘ dog.py ’ in the terminal to run the file. To make a file executable, you can use the command ‘ chmod +x dog.py ’ . You can use ‘ chmod 755 dog.py ’ to give it root permissions or ‘ sudo chmod +x numbers.py ’ for root executable. ​ ping - is used to check your connection to a server, it is a computer network administration software utility that tests the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. When ‘ ping google.com ’ is typed it checks if it can connect to that server and come back, and also measures the round-trip time then gives displays the details about it. Most users use this command to check their internet connection. If it pings the server the internet connection is active. ​ hostname - hostname provides your name in your host or network. It displays your hostname and IP address. Typing ‘ hostname ’ gives the output. While typing in ‘ hostname -I ’ gives you your IP address in your network.